Commerce
An enterprise architecture (EA) is a rigorous description of the structure of an enterprise, which comprises enterprise components (business entities), the externally visible properties of those components, and the relationships (e.g. the behavior) between them. EA describes the terminology, the composition of enterprise components, and their relationships with the external environment, and the guiding principles for the requirement (analysis), design, and evolution of an enterprise. This description is comprehensive, including enterprise goals, business process, roles, organizational structures, organizational behaviors, business information, software applications and computer systems.Practitioners of EA call themselves "enterprise architects." An enterprise architect is a person responsible for developing the enterprise architecture and is often called upon to draw conclusions from it. By producing an enterprise architecture, architects are providing a tool for identifying opportunities to improve the enterprise, in a manner that more effectively and efficiently pursues its purpose.
In business and engineering,
new product development (NPD) is the term used to describe the complete
process of bringing a new product or service to market. There are two
parallel paths involved in the NPD process: one involves the idea generation, product
design and detail engineering; the other involves market research and marketing
analysis. Companies typically see new product development as the first
stage in generating and commercializing new products within the overall
strategic process of product life cycle management used to
maintain or grow their market share.
Package labelling (en-GB) or labeling (en-US) is any written, electronic, or graphic communications on the packaging or on a separate but associated label.
Product design is concerned with the efficient and effective generation and development of ideas through a process that leads to new products.
Product Designers conceptualize and evaluate ideas, making them tangible through products in a more systematic approach. Their role is to combine art, science and technology to create tangible three-dimensional goods. This evolving role has been facilitated by digital tools that allow designers to communicate, visualize and analyze ideas in a way that would have taken greater manpower in the past.
Product design is sometimes confused with industrial design, industrial design is concerned with the aspect of that process that brings that sort of artistic form and usability usually associated with craft design to that of mass produced goods.
Service Design is the activity of planning and organizing people, infrastructure, communication and material components of a service, in order to improve its quality, the interaction between service provider and customers and the customer's experience. For example, a restaurant may choose to have a Service Design agency change the way its menu is set out, or change the layout of the restaurant to improve the customer's experience. Customers can mean paying patrons, but also can be within an organization, so long as they are the direct recipients of a service e.g. an organization implements a new payroll interface for its staff - therefore the staff are effectively 'customers' of the payroll interface. To do this, Service Design methodologies are used to plan and organize people, infrastructure, communication and material components used in a service. The increasing importance and size of the service sector, both in terms of people employed and economic importance, requires services to be accurately designed in order for service providers to remain competitive and to continue to attract customers.
The design (or redesign) of a service may involve re-organizing the activities performed by the service provider (Back office), e.g. how letters from customers are processed internally; and/or the redesign of interfaces and interactions that customers use to contact the service provider (Front office) e.g. website, in person, telephone, blog etc.
Service Design is increasingly used by blue-chip private and public sector organizations as a means of creating the step change their customers require in terms of service experience. Service Design agencies apply design tools, techniques and thinking to service challenges, either to improve existing services or to create new ones. Typically, the work is based upon deep insights gathered by shadowing service users. This technique produces more accurate insights into the usability of a service than traditional remote surveys because what people say they do is frequently different to what they actually do. Concepts and ideas generated are captured in sketches or in service prototypes. The strong visual element, combined with the opportunity to test and rapidly change services and interfaces, delivers real value in today's competitive markets.
Communications
Book design is the art of incorporating the content, style, format, design, and sequence of the various components of a book into a coherent whole.In the words of Jan Tschichold, book design "[...] though largely forgotten today, methods and rules upon which it is impossible to improve have been developed over centuries. To produce perfect books these rules have to be brought back to life and applied." Richard Hendel describes book design as "an arcane subject" and refers to the need for a context to understand what that means.
Color psychology is the study of color as a factor in human behavior. This includes very diverse studies, ranging from quantifying individual color preference to investigating the relationship between shirt color and match outcome in English football.
hi i am a person
Communication design is a mixed discipline between design and information-development which is concerned with how media intermission such as printed, crafted, electronic media or presentations communicate with people. A communication design approach is not only concerned with developing the message aside from the aesthetics in media, but also with creating new media channels to ensure the message reaches the target audience.
Communication design can also refer to a systems-based approach, in which the totality of media and messages within a culture or organization are designed as a single integrated process rather than a series of discrete efforts.
Communication design seeks to attract, inspire, create desires and motivate the people to respond to messages, with a view to making a favorable impact to the bottom line of the commissioning body, which can be either to build a brand, move sales, or for humanitarian purposes. Its process involves strategic business thinking, using market research, creativity, and problem-solving.
The term communication design is often used interchangeably with visual communication, but has an alternate broader meaning that includes auditory, vocal, touch and smell. Examples of Communication Design include information architecture, editing, typography, illustration, web design, animation, advertising, ambient media, visual identity design, performing arts, copywriting and professional writing skills applied in the creative industries.
A content designer is a designer who designs content for media or software. The term is mainly used in web development. Depending on the content format, the content designer usually holds a more specific title such as graphic designer for graphical content, writer for textual content, instructional designer for educational content, or a programmer for automated program/data-driven content.
A senior content designer is a designer who leads a "content design" group in designing new content for a product. Depending on the purpose of the content, the role of a senior content designer may be similar or identical to a communication design, game development or educational role with a different title more associated with those professions. For example: a senior content designer in a communication design profession is better known as a creative director.
An Exhibition Designer is a
professional who creates fixtures and display stands for events such as large
public exhibitions, conferences, trade shows
and temporary displays for business, museums, libraries and galleries.
Their work can include:
- presenting their ideas as sketches, scale plans, computer-generated visuals and models
- discussing their ideas with clients
- producing final specifications
- in smaller companies, overseeing the construction of the components (usually in workshops) and assembly and installation at the exhibition venue
- handling orders for supplies
- liaising with technical specialists such as lighting staff
An Exhibition Designer might be
employed as part of a team by an independent studio. Other employers include
national and local government, and large organisations such as museums with
their own design departments. There is a steady demand for the services of
talented and experienced professionals. The work is studio or office based, but
will usually also involve visiting clients or exhibition sites and in some
cases may also involve being outside (i.e. outdoor zoos, parades).
Common uses of graphic design include identity (logos and branding), web sites, publications (magazines, newspapers, and books), advertisements and product packaging. For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design, especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.
Information design is the skill and practice of preparing information so people can use it with efficiency and effectiveness. Where the data is complex or unstructured, a visual representation can express its meaning more clearly to the viewer.
nstructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD)) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically (process of teaching) and andragogically (adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: 1) analysis, 2) design, 3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.
Motion Design is a subset of graphic design in that it uses graphic design principles in a film or video context (or other temporally evolving visual medium) through the use of animation or filmic techniques. Examples include the typography and graphics you see as the titles for a film, or opening sequences for television or the spinning, web-based animations, three-dimensional logo for a television channel. About 12 minutes in every hour of broadcast television is the work of the motion graphics designer, yet it is known as the invisible art, as many viewers are unaware of this component of programming. Although this art form has been around for decades, it has taken quantum leaps forward in recent years, in terms of technical sophistication. If you watch much TV or see many films, you will have noticed that the graphics, the typography, and the visual effects within this medium have become much more elaborate and sophisticated.
News design is the process of arranging material on a newspaper
page, according to editorial and graphical guidelines and goals. Main editorial
goals include the ordering of news stories by order of importance, while graphical
considerations include readability and balanced, unobtrusive incorporation of advertising.
News design incorporates principles
of graphic
design and is taught as part of journalism
training in schools and colleges. Overlapping and related terms include layout,
makeup (formerly paste up) and pagination.
The era of modern newspapers begins
in the mid-nineteenth century, with the Industrial Revolution, and increased
capacities for printing
and distribution. Over time, improvements in
printing technology, graphical design, and editorial standards have led to
changes and improvements in the look and readability of newspapers.
Nineteenth-century newspapers were often densely packed with type, often
arranged vertically, with multiple headlines for each article. A number of the
same technological limitations persisted until the advent of digital typesetting
and pagination
in late 20th century.
"USA Today"
was a leader in design changes, and was largely responsible for adding tools
such as color and infographics to newspapers' design vocabulary. These changes
are partly intended to help readers "navigate", to scan and see
priorities.
Some of these changes included:
- Fewer articles per page.
- Modules, or squaring off of articles and packages of related materials. Modules avoid what is known as "doglegs" or inverted-"L" shapes.
- More standardized column widths.
- More standardized fonts.
- More "art" —nontext elements, usually photos, but often including advertising or outline (or shaded) boxes for featured stories.
- More white space, known as "air". An area with too little white space is called "tight", and too much white space is called "loose".
- Color.
Sound design is the process of specifying, acquiring and manipulating audio elements. It is employed in a variety of disciplines including film, theatre, music recording, live music performance, and computer game software development. Sound design most commonly involves the manipulation of previously composed audio, such as previously recorded music and sound effects. In some instances it may also involve the composition or manipulation of audio to create a desired effect or mood. A sound designer is one who practices the art of sound design.
Stagecraft is a generic term referring to the technical aspects of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes, but is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Stagecraft is distinct from the wider umbrella term of scenography. Considered a technical rather than an artistic field, it relates primarily to the practical implementation of a designer's artistic vision.
In its most basic form, stagecraft is managed by a single person (often the stage manager of a smaller production) who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, and sound, and organizes the cast. At a more professional level, for example modern Broadway houses, stagecraft is managed by hundreds of skilled carpenters, painters, electricians, stagehands, stitchers, wigmakers, and the like. This modern form of stagecraft is highly technical and specialized: it comprises many sub-disciplines and a vast trove of history and tradition.
The majority of stagecraft lies between these two extremes. Regional theatres and larger community theatres will generally have a technical director and a complement of designers, each of whom has a direct hand in their respective designs.
Typography (from the Greek words τύπος(typos) = form and γραφή(graphy) = writing) is the art and technique of arranging type, type design, and modifying type glyphs. Type glyphs are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques. The arrangement of type involves the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading (line spacing), adjusting the spaces between groups of letters (tracking) and adjusting the space between pairs of letters (kerning).
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic designers, art directors, comic book artists, graffiti artists, and clerical workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened up typography to new genVisual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid and is described as the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Visual communication solely relies on vision, and is primarily presented or expressed with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, colour and electronic resources. It also explores the idea that a visual message accompanying text has a greater power to inform, educate, or persuade a person or audience.
The evaluation of a good visual
communication design is mainly based on measuring comprehension by the audience,
not on personal aesthetic and/or artistic preference as there are no
universally agreed-upon principles of beauty and ugliness. Excluding two dimensional
images, there are other ways to express information visually - gestures and
body language, animation (digital or analogue), and film. Visual communication
by e-mail, a
textual medium, is commonly expressed with ASCII art, emoticons, and
embedded digital images.
The term 'visual presentation' is
used to refer to the actual presentation of information through a visible
medium such as text or images. Recent research in the field has focused on web design
and graphically-oriented usability. Graphic
designers also use methods of visual communication in their professional
practice. Visual communication on the World
Wide Web is perhaps the most important form of communication that takes
place while users are surfing the Internet. When experiencing the web, one uses
the eyes as the primary sense, and therefore the visual presentation of a
website is very important for users to understand the message or of the
communication taking place.
The Eye of
Horus
The Eye of
Horus is often referred to as the symbol of visual communication. It is
said to be a representation of an eclipse, as the corona around the pupil is
like the corona around the sun during a solar eclipse.
erations of visual designers and lay users. Physical
An architectural designer is an architect that is primarily involved in the design of buildings or urban landscapes, as opposed to the construction documents and management required to construct it. Architectural designers have good creative skills, imagination and artistic talent. Although most students of architecture are trained to be designers in school, not all become designers in practice. Non-registered designers are similar, but cannot legally refer to themselves as "architectural" designers in most parts of the world. Most are referred to as building designers, especially when not employed by an architectural firm.Many large architectural firms have architectural designers that set what the general public views as the "style" of the firm's projects. These firms may actually have groups of designers (design studios), often divided into their own separate niche markets (education, healthcare, housing, etc.) In smaller architectural firms, the architectural designers tend to remain involved with the project right through completion, and actually take an active role in documentation and management, sometimes to the point of supervising construction. It is worth noting that most "star" architects, that have become household names, are known because of their skill as architectural designers.
Architectural engineering, also known as Building engineering, is the
application of engineering principles and technology
to building design and construction.
Definitions of an architectural engineer may refer to:
- An engineer in the structural, mechanical, electrical, construction or other engineering fields of building design and construction.
- A licensed engineering professional in parts of the United States.
- In informal contexts, and formally in some places, a professional synonymous with or similar to an architect. In some languages, "architect" is literally translated as "architectural engineer".
Cellular Manufacturing is a model for workplace design, and has become an integral part of lean manufacturing systems. Cellular Manufacturing is based upon the principals of Group Technology, which seeks to take full advantage of the similarity between parts, through standardisation and common processing. In Functional Manufacturing similar machines are placed close together (e.g. lathes, millers, drills etc). Functional layouts are more robust to machine breakdowns, have common jigs and fixtures in the same area and supports high levels of demarcation. In Cellular Manufacturing systems machines are grouped together according to the families of parts produced. The major advantage is that material flow is significantly improved, which reduces the distance travelled by materials, inventory and cumulative lead times. Cellular Manufacturing is most suitable for batch manufacturing.
The goal of lean manufacturing is the aggressive minimisation of waste, called muda, to achieve maximum efficiency of resources. Cellular manufacturing, sometimes called cellular or cell production, arranges factory floor labor into semi-autonomous and multi-skilled teams, or work cells, who manufacture complete products or complex components. Properly trained and implemented cells are more flexible and responsive than the traditional mass-production line, and can manage processes, defects, scheduling, equipment maintenance, and other manufacturing issues more efficiently.
In art history, ceramics and ceramic art mean art objects such as figures, tiles, and tableware made from clay and other raw materials by the process of pottery. Some ceramic products are regarded as fine art, while others are regarded as decorative, industrial or applied art objects, or as artifacts in archaeology. They may be made by one individual or in a factory where a group of people design, make and decorate the ware. Decorative ceramics are sometimes called "art pottery".
The word "ceramics" comes from the Greek keramikos (κεραμικος), meaning "pottery", which in turn comes from keramos (κεραμος), meaning "potter's clay." Most traditional ceramic products were made from clay (or clay mixed with other materials), shaped and subjected to heat, and tableware and decorative ceramics are generally still made this way. In modern ceramic engineering usage, ceramics is the art and science of making objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials by the action of heat. It excludes glass and mosaic made from glass tesserae.
There is a long history of ceramic art in almost all developed cultures, and often ceramic objects are all the artistic evidence left from vanished cultures, like that of the Nok in Africa over 2,000 years ago. Cultures especially noted for fine ceramics include the Chinese, Cretan, Greek, Persian, Mayan, Japanese, and Korean cultures, as well as the modern Western cultures.
Elements of ceramic art, upon which different degrees of emphasis have been placed at different times, are the shape of the object, its decoration by painting, carving and other methods, and the glazing found on most ceramics.
Design engineer is a general term that covers multiple engineering disciplines including electrical, mechanical and civil engineering, architectural engineers in the U.S. and building engineers in the U.K.
The design engineer is distinguished from the designer/drafter by virtue of the fact that a design engineer takes care of the inner workings/engineering of a design. While industrial designers may be responsible for the conceptual aesthetic and ergonomic aspects of a design, the design engineer usually works with a team of engineers and designers to develop the preliminary design and the most critical parts. He/she may work with industrial designers and marketing to develop the product concept and specifications, and he/she may direct the design effort from that point. Products are usually designed with input from a number of sources such as manufacturing, purchasing, tool making and packaging engineering.
In many engineering areas, a distinction is made between the design engineer and the planning engineer in design. Planning engineers are more concerned with designing on a more systems engineering level, and overlaps onto the operational side are often necessary. Design engineers, in contrast, are more concerned with designing a particular new product or system. However the design process and concepts will usually start with an ideation session from the industrial designer/s. Analysis is important for planning engineers, while synthesis is paramount for design engineers.
When the design involves public safety, the design engineer is usually required to be licensed, for example a Professional Engineer in the U.S. There is usually an 'industrial exemption' for design engineers working on project internal to companies.
Environmental design is the process of addressing surrounding environmental parameters when devising plans, programs, policies, buildings, or products. Classical prudent design may have always considered environmental factors; however, the environmental movement beginning in the 1940s has made the concept more explicit.
Environmental design can also refer to the applied arts and sciences dealing with creating the human-designed environment. These fields include architecture, geography,urban planning, landscape architecture, and interior design. Environmental design can also encompass interdisciplinary areas such as historical preservation and lighting design. In terms of a larger scope, environmental design has implications for the industrial design of products: innovative automobiles, wind-electricity generators, solar-electric equipment, and other kinds of equipment could serve as examples. Currently, the term has expanded to apply to ecological and sustainability issues.
Fashion design is the art of the application of design and aesthetics or natural beauty to clothing and accessories. Fashion design is influenced by cultural and social lattitudes, and has varied over time and place. Fashion designers work in a number of ways in designing clothing and accessories. Some work alone or as part of a team. They attempt to satisfy consumer desire for aesthetically designed clothing; and, because of the time required to bring a garment onto the market, must at times anticipate changing consumer tastes. Some designers in fact have a reputation which enables them to set fashion trends.
Fashion designers attempt to design clothes which are functional as well as aesthetically pleasing. They must consider who is likely to wear a garment and the situations in which it will be worn. They have a wide range and combinations of materials to work with and a wide range of colors, patterns and styles to choose from. Though most clothing worn for everyday wear fall within a narrow range of conventional styles, unusual garments are usually sought for special occasions, such as evening wear or party dresses.
Some clothes are made specifically for an individual, as in the case of haute couture. Today, most clothing is designed for the mass market, especially casual and every-day wear.
Floral design is the art of using plant materials and flowers to create a pleasing and balanced composition. Evidence of refined floristry is found as far back as the culture of Ancient Egypt. Professionally designed floral designs, arrangements or artwork incorporate the elements of floral design: Line, Form, Space, Texture and Color and the Principles of Floral Design:Balance, Proportion, Rhythm, Contrast, Harmony and Unity. Book of Floral Terminology, AIFD.
There are many styles of floral design. Eastern, Western and European styles have all influenced the commercial floral industry as it is today. Ikebana is a Japanese or eastern style of floral design and incorporates the three main line placements of heaven, man and earth. In contrast, European style emphasizes color and variety of botanical materials not limited to just blooming flowers, in mass gatherings of multiple flowers. Western design historically is characterized by symmetrical, asymmetrical, horizontal and vertical style of arrangements.
Furniture is the mass noun for the movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating and sleeping in beds, to hold objects at a convenient height for work using horizontal surfaces above the ground, or to store things. Storage furniture such as a nightstand often makes use of doors, drawers, shelves and locks to contain, organize or secure smaller objects such as clothes, tools, books, and household goods. (See List of furniture types.)
Furniture can be a product of design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furniture's functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose. Domestic furniture works to create, in conjunction with furnishings such as clocks and lighting, comfortable and convenient interior spaces. Furniture can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be made using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflect the local culture.
Garden design is the art and process of designing and
creating plans for layout and planting of gardens and landscapes.
Garden design may be done by the garden owner themselves, or by professionals
of varying levels of experience and expertise. Most professional garden
designers are trained in principles of design and in horticulture,
and have an expert knowledge and experience of using plants. Some professional
garden designers are also landscape architects, a more formal level of
training that usually requires an advanced degree and often a state license.
Many amateur gardeners also attain a high level of experience from extensive
hours working in their own gardens, through casual study, serious study in Master Gardener Programs, or by joining
gardening clubs.
Garden owners have shown an
increasing interest in garden design during the late twentieth century, both as
enthusiasts of gardening as a hobby, as well as an expansion in the use of
professional garden designers.
The term "industrial design" is often attributed to the designer Joseph Claude Sinel in 1919 (although he himself denied it in later interviews) but the discipline predates that by at least a decade. Its origins lay in the industrialization of consumer products. For instance the Deutscher Werkbund, founded in 1907 and a precursor to the Bauhaus, was a state-sponsored effort to integrate traditional crafts and industrial mass-production techniques, to put Germany on a competitive footing with England and the United States.
Interior design is a multi–faceted profession in which creative and technical solutions are applied within a structure to achieve a built interior environment.
The interior design process follows a systematic and coordinated methodology, including research, analysis, and integration of knowledge into the creative process, whereby the needs and resources of the client are satisfied to produce an interior space that fulfills the project goals.
Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor and public spaces to achieve environmental, socio-behavioral, and/or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and geological conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome. The scope of the profession includes: urban design; site planning; town or urban planning; environmental restoration; parks and recreation planning; visual resource management; green infrastructure planning and provision; and private estate and residence landscape master planning and design; all at varying scales of design, planning and management. A practitioner in the profession of landscape architecture is called a landscape architect.
Mechanical engineering is a discipline of engineering that applies the principles of physics and materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the production and usage of heat and mechanical power for the design, production, and operation of machines and tools. It is one of the oldest and broadest engineering disciplines.
The engineering field requires a vast understanding of core concepts including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, and structural analysis. Mechanical engineers use these core principles along with tools like computer-aided engineering and product lifecycle management to design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, heating and cooling systems, motorized vehicles, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices and more.
Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the industrial revolution in Europe in the 19th century; however, its development can be traced back several thousand years around the world. The field has continually evolved to incorporate advancements in technology, and mechanical engineers today are pursuing developments in such fields as composites, mechatronics, and nanotechnology. Mechanical engineering overlaps with aerospace engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and petroleum engineering to varying amounts.
Sustainable design (also called environmental design, environmentally sustainable design, environmentally conscious design, etc.) is the philosophy of designing physical objects, the built environment, and services to comply with the principles of economic, social, and ecological sustainability.
Urban design concerns the arrangement, appearance and functionality of towns and cities, and in particular the shaping and uses of urban public space. It has traditionally been regarded as a disciplinary subset of urban planning, landscape architecture, or architecture and in more recent times has been linked to emergent disciplines such as landscape urbanism. However, with its increasing prominence in the activities of these disciplines, it is better conceptualised as a design practice that operates at the intersection of all three, and requires a good understanding of a range of others besides, such as real estate development, urban economics, political economy and social theory.
Urban design theory deals primarily with the design and management of public space (i.e. the 'public environment', 'public realm' or 'public domain'), and the way public places are experienced and used. Public space includes the totality of spaces used freely on a day-to-day basis by the general public, such as streets, plazas, parks and public infrastructure. Some aspects of privately owned spaces, such as building facades or domestic gardens, also contribute to public space and are therefore also considered by Urban design theory. Important writers on, and advocates for, urban design theory include Christopher Alexander, Michael E. Arth, Edmund Bacon, Ian Bentley,[1]Peter Calthorpe, Alex Krieger, Gordon Cullen, Andres Duany, Jane Jacobs, Jan Gehl, Kevin Lynch, Roger Montgomery, Aldo Rossi, Colin Rowe, Robert Venturi, William H. Whyte, Bill Hillier, and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk.
While the two fields are closely related, 'urban design' differs from 'urban planning' in its focus on physical improvement of the public environment, whereas the latter tends, in practice, to focus on the management of private development through established planning methods and programs, and other statutory development controls.
Applications
Experience design (XD) is the practice of designing products, processes, services, events, and environments with a focus placed on the quality of the user experience and culturally relevant solutions, with less emphasis placed on increasing and improving functionality of the design. An emerging discipline, experience design draws from many other disciplines including cognitive psychology and perceptual psychology, linguistics, cognitive science, architecture and environmental design, haptics, hazard analysis, product design, theatre, information design, information architecture, ethnography, brand strategy, interaction design, service design, storytelling, heuristics, and design thinking.Game design, a subset of game development, is the process of designing the content and rules of a game in the pre-production stage and design of gameplay, environment, and storyline, characters during production stage. The term is also used to describe both the game design embodied in a game as well as documentation that describes such a design. Game design requires artistic and technical competence as well as writing skills.
Interaction design (abbreviated as IxD) defines the structure and behavior of interactive systems. Interaction Designers strive to create meaningful relationships between people and the products and services that they use, from computers to mobile devices to appliances and beyond. The practice typically centers on "embedding information technology into the ambient social complexities of the physical world."
Interactivity, however, is not limited to technological systems. It can also apply to other types of non-electronic products and services, and even organizations. Also, people have been interacting with each other as long as humans have been a species. Therefore, interaction design can be applied to the development of all solutions (or offerings), such as services and events. Those who design these offerings have, typically, performed interaction design inherently without naming it as such.
Software design is a process of problem-solving and planning for a software solution. After the purpose and specifications of software are determined, software developers will design or employ designers to develop a plan for a solution. It includes low-level component and algorithm implementation issues as well as the architectural view.
Software development (also known as application development, software design, designing software, software application development, enterprise application development, or platform development) is the development of a software product. The term "software development" may be used to refer to the activity of computer programming, which is the process of writing and maintaining the source code, but in a broader sense of the term it includes all that is involved between the conception of the desired software through to the final manifestation of the software, ideally in a planned and structured process. Therefore, software development may include research, new development, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities that result in software products.
Software can be developed for a variety of purposes, the three most common being to meet specific needs of a specific client/business (the case with custom software), to meet a perceived need of some set of potential users (the case with commercial and open source software), or for personal use (e.g. a scientist may write software to automate a mundane task). Embedded software development, that is, the development of embedded software such as used for controlling consumer products, requires the development process to be integrated with the development of the controlled physical product.
The need for better quality control of the software development process has given rise to the discipline of software engineering, which aims to apply the systematic approach exemplified in the engineering paradigm to the process of software development.
Software engineering (SE) is a profession dedicated to designing, implementing, and modifying software so that it is of higher quality, more affordable, maintainable, and faster to build. It is a "systematic approach to the analysis, design, assessment, implementation, test, maintenance and reengineering of software, that is, the application of engineering to software." The term software engineering first appeared in the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference, and was meant to provoke thought regarding the perceived "software crisis" at the time. The IEEE Computer Society's Software Engineering Body of Knowledge defines "software engineering" as the application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches; that is, the application of engineering to software. It is the application of Engineering to software because it integrates significant mathematics, computer science and practices whose origins are in Engineering.
Software development, a much used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. Although it is questionable what impact it has had on actual software development over the last more than 40 years, the field's future looks bright according to Money Magazine and Salary.com, which rated "software engineer" as the best job in the United States in 2006.
Systems design is the process of defining the architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements. One could see it as the application of systems theory to product development. There is some overlap with the disciplines of systems analysis, systems architecture and systems engineering. If the broader topic of product development "blends the perspective of marketing, design, and manufacturing into a single approach to product development, then design is the act of taking the marketing information and creating the design of the product to be manufactured. Systems design is therefore the process of defining and developing systems to satisfy specified requirements of the user. Until the 1990s systems design had a crucial and respected role in the data processing industry. In the 1990s standardization of hardware and software resulted in the ability to build modular systems. The increasing importance of software running on generic platforms has enhanced the discipline of software engineering.
Object-oriented analysis and design methods are becoming the most widely used methods for computer systems design. The UML has become the standard language in object-oriented analysis and design. It is widely used for modeling software systems and is increasingly used for high designing non-software systems and organizations.
User eXperience Design (UXD) is a subset of the field of experience design that pertains to the creation of the architecture and interaction models that affect user experience of a device or system. As user experience is a subjective feeling, it cannot actually be "designed". Instead, you can design for a user experience, trying to enable certain kind of experiences. The scope of the field is directed at affecting "all aspects of the user’s interaction with the product: how it is perceived, learned, and used."
User interface design or user interface engineering is the design of computers, appliances, machines, mobile communication devices, software applications, and websites with the focus on the user's experience and interaction. The goal of user interface design is to make the user's interaction as simple and efficient as possible, in terms of accomplishing user goals—what is often called user-centered design. Good user interface design facilitates finishing the task at hand without drawing unnecessary attention to itself. Graphic design may be utilized to support its usability. The design process must balance technical functionality and visual elements (e.g., mental model) to create a system that is not only operational but also usable and adaptable to changing user needs.
Interface design is involved in a wide range of projects from computer systems, to cars, to commercial planes; all of these projects involve much of the same basic human interactions yet also require some unique skills and knowledge. As a result, designers tend to specialize in certain types of projects and have skills centered around their expertise, whether that be software design, user research, web design, or industrial design.
Web accessibility refers to the inclusive practice of making websites usable
by people of all abilities and disabilities.
When sites are correctly designed, developed and edited, all users can have
equal access to information and functionality. For example, when a site is
coded with semantically meaningful HTML, with textual equivalents provided for images and with
links named meaningfully, this helps blind users using text-to-speech software
and/or text-to-Braille hardware. When text and images are large and/or
enlargable, it is easier for users with poor sight to read and understand the
content. When links are underlined (or otherwise differentiated) as well as
coloured, this ensures that color blind users will be able to notice them. When clickable
links and areas are large, this helps users who cannot control a mouse
with precision. When pages are coded so that users can navigate by means of the
keyboard alone, or a single switch
access device alone, this helps users who cannot use a mouse or even a
standard keyboard. When videos are closed
captioned or a sign language version is available, deaf and hard of
hearing users can understand the video. When flashing effects are avoided or
made optional, users prone to seizures caused by these effects are not put at risk. And
when content is written in plain language and illustrated with instructional
diagrams and animations, users with dyslexia and learning difficulties are better able to
understand the content. When sites are correctly built and maintained, all of
these users can be accommodated while not impacting on the usability of the
site for non-disabled users.
The needs that Web accessibility
aims to address include:
- Visual: Visual impairments including blindness, various common types of low vision and poor eyesight, various types of color blindness;
- Motor/Mobility: e.g. difficulty or inability to use the hands, including tremors, muscle slowness, loss of fine muscle control, etc., due to conditions such as Parkinson's Disease, muscular dystrophy, cerebral palsy, stroke;
- Auditory: Deafness or hearing impairments, including individuals who are hard of hearing;
- Seizures: Photoepileptic seizures caused by visual strobe or flashing effects.
- Cognitive/Intellectual: Developmental disabilities, learning disabilities (dyslexia, dyscalculia, etc.), and cognitive disabilities of various origins, affecting memory, attention, developmental "maturity," problem-solving and logic skills, etc.
Scientific & mathematical
Combinatorial design theory is the part of combinatorial
mathematics
that deals with the existence and construction of systems of
finite sets whose intersections have specified numerical properties.
For instance, a balanced
incomplete block design (usually called for short a block
design) is a collection B of b subsets (called blocks)
of a finite set X of v elements, such that any element of X
is contained in the same number r of blocks, every block has the same
number k of elements, and any two blocks have the same number λ of
common elements. For example, if λ = 1, we have a projective
plane: X is the point set of the plane and the blocks are the lines.
A spherical
design is a finite set X of points in a (d − 1)-dimensional
sphere such
that, for some integer t, the average value on X of every
polynomial
of total degree at most t is
equal to the average value of f on the whole sphere, i.e., the integral of f
divided by the area of the sphere.
Combinatorial design theory is
applied to the design of experiments. Some of the basic
theory of combinatorial designs originated in Ronald
Fisher's work on design of experiments.
In general usage, design of experiments (DOE) or experimental
design is the design of any information-gathering exercises where variation
is present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or not. However,
in statistics,
these terms are usually used for controlled experiments. Other types of study,
and their design, are discussed in the articles on opinion
polls and statistical surveys (which are types of observational study), natural experiments and quasi-experiments
(for example, quasi-experimental design). See Experiment
for the distinction between these types of experiments or studies.In the design of experiments, the experimenter is often interested in the effect of some process or intervention (the "treatment") on some objects (the "experimental units"), which may be people, parts of people, groups of people, plants, animals, materials, etc. Design of experiments is thus a discipline that has very broad application across all the natural and social sciences.
Source: Design as a noun informally refers to a plan for the construction of an object (as in architectural blueprints, circuit diagrams and sewing patterns) while “to design” (verb) refers to making this plan. No generally-accepted definition of “design” exists, and the term has different connotations in different fields (see design disciplines below). However, one can also design by directly constructing an object (as in pottery, cowboy coding and graphic design).
More formally, design has been
defined as follows:
(noun) a specification of an object, manifested by an agent, intended to accomplish goals, in a particular environment, using a set of primitive
components, satisfying a set of requirements,
subject to constraints;
(verb, transitive) to create a design, in an environment (where the designer operates)
Here, a "specification"
can be manifested as either a plan or a finished product and
"primitives" are the elements from which the design object is
composed.
With such a broad denotation, there
is no universal language or unifying institution for designers of all
disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophies and approaches toward
the subject (see Philosophies
and studies of design, below).
The person designing is called a designer,
which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the
various design areas, usually also specifying which area is being dealt with
(such as a fashion designer, concept designer or web designer).
A designer’s sequence of activities is called a design process. The
scientific study of design is called design science.
Designing often necessitates
considering the aesthetic, functional, economic and sociopolitical dimensions of both
the design object and design process. It may involve considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment,
and re-design. Meanwhile, diverse kinds of objects may be designed, including clothing, graphical user interfaces, skyscrapers,
corporate identities, business
processes and even methods of designing.
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